Climate Action: Policy and Practice

Climate change is one of the complex, global challenges that we face today, perhaps the most pressing in its potential to dramatically alter our global environment and profoundly impact human civilization, from sea level rise, to public health, to water scarcity, to food production, to socioeconomic factors, to a severe decrease in the planet's biodiversity. Taking action toward climate stabilization and avoiding  dangerous consequences means two things: mitigation and adaptation.

Mitigation means reducing our greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Adaptation means reconfiguring the natural and built environments to prepare for changes that may already be inevitable. Both mitigation and adaptation require two phases of influence from the planning, design and development field. First, we must provide quantitative understanding of GHG reduction targets and strategies to inform and support regulatory policy development—the legislation that will drive climate action. Next, we must provide innovation in the design and planning practices that directly shape the natural and built environment. In the first part of this two-part series, we look at efforts in the US and UK to inform and support policy.

According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), avoiding dangerous climate effects is linked to stabilizing the global equilibrium temperature at a maximum of 2 degrees Celsius (°C) above pre-industrial levels. This value corresponds to atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations of 350-400 parts per million (ppm). In 1990, global CO2 concentrations were approximately 353 ppm, the value that relates to the goals set forth in recent legislation, such as the California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 and the Kyoto treaty. Today's CO2  concentrations are estimated at around 387 ppm, likely over the ceiling of safe climate equilibrium. Enlightened farming and forestry practices will help the planet's green infrastructure to reduce these concentrations, provided that we stop emitting GHGs at current levels.

The primary land development practices that have potential to lower GHG emissions are: increased proximity of a project to primary job and service-centers; higher density land uses; multi-modal transportation systems that improve external linkages and internal connectivity; building energy systems that increase energy efficiency; and on- and off-site renewable energy generation options. Additional opportunities to reduce GHG emissions can be found in public realm energy use, including lighting of streets, parking lots, and parks; water treatment and conveyance systems; and construction practices.

Climate stabilization requires effective, easy-to-use measurement tools that illustrate the magnitude of the problem, and revised development and conservation policies that respond to the challenge. Until recently, agencies, government entities, developers, and others have had no way to identify and evaluate the myriad GHG reduction choices before them or to understand the underlying public and private costs and benefits of these choices. For this reason, EDAW AECOM has developed sustainability models, GHG analytical methodologies and mitigation strategies, and development and conservation policies to assist in the overall goal of climate stabilization.

Thought leadership in California
"You can't start mitigating until you have quantified your current emissions," explains Honey Walters, an EDAW AECOM environmental planner specializing in climate change. "Without quantitative assessment and clear benchmarks, mitigation efforts can be ineffective and economically disastrous." Honey and her colleagues, based in Sacramento, have developed GHG quantification methods, mitigation strategies, and benchmarks or thresholds. These apply to three types of projects: providing guidance and tools to implement recently adopted legislation; climate action plans (CAPs) for local government agencies; and California Environmental Quality Act and National Environmental Policy Act (CEQA/NEPA) analysis.

California leads the US in addressing climate change through legislation. Assembly Bill (AB) 32, Statutes of 2006, requires the state to reduce its statewide GHG emissions to a level commensurate with 1990 by 2020. This represents about a 15% reduction from current levels and about a 30% reduction from projected 2020 business-as-usual levels. Senate Bill (SB) 97, Statutes of 2007, acknowledges that climate change is a prominent environmental issue warranting consideration in CEQA documents. CEQA guidelines amendments required by SB 97 are in the rule-making process now and must be adopted by January 1, 2010. Recent NEPA case law has determined that projects subject to NEPA also must analyze GHG emissions and climate change effects. Senate Bill (SB) 375, Statutes of 2008, aligns GHG reductions for cars and light trucks with transportation and land use planning at the regional level. SB 375 will require California's 18 metropolitan planning organizations (MPO) to produce a sustainable communities strategy (SCS) that shows how they will achieve mandated GHG reduction targets by reducing vehicle miles traveled (VMT).

EDAW AECOM's work for the California Air Pollution Control Officers Association (CAPCOA) has been groundbreaking. We provided CAPCOA with two landmark documents, Greenhouse Gas Analytical Methodologies for the Climate Change and CEQA Report and Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Strategies for the Climate Change and CEQA Report, both of which are currently in use. These documents address GHG emissions generated by construction activities, vehicle trips associated with operation of proposed land use development, area-source emissions associated with on-site space heating, water heating, and landscape maintenance, and indirect emissions associated with energy consumption. They also provide a quantitative threshold framework to determine whether proposed land use development projects would be consistent with state-wide greenhouse gas reduction goals while accommodating future projected growth in both the state's economy and population.

The CAPCOA documents also included a comprehensive list of mitigation measures currently in practice and under study that would reduce GHG emissions associated with land use development, planning-level, and infrastructure projects. EDAW AECOM provided a full description of each measure and identified applicable project types and emission sources. We also assessed the feasibility of each measure in terms of its reduction effectiveness, technological and logistical availability, and economic cost. We assessed whether any measures could potentially result in secondary adverse or beneficial impacts to air quality. The methodologies, metrics, and reduction measures in these documents are helping local governments evaluate the GHG emissions potential of proposed development projects and reduce them.

Coast to coast
California, Washington and Massachusetts are the three US states with the most progressive climate change legislation adopted. In addition to the extensive work in California, EDAW AECOM is also helping Washington and Massachusetts develop their GHG reduction approaches. We are conducting a study to develop a range of advisory methods and computer modeling capabilities for Washington's counties and cities to quantify greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions from a variety of specific land use and transportation measures, policy options, and strategies, and to do so in a manner that reflects regional and local variations and the diversity of the State's counties and cities. The study will also assess the applicability to Washington's Growth Management Act of the current best GHG reduction measures, evaluating them relative to feasibility, cost effectiveness, and ability to realize quantified reductions. EDAW AECOM is helping the City of Seattle to achieve its goal of carbon neutrality for all new construction by 2030. Using projections and modeling from our proprietary Sustainable Systems Integration Model™ (SSIM™), we are analyzing eight policy proposals according to their cost effectiveness, energy efficiency potential, economic impact, cost of implementation, and administrative feasibility. EDAW AECOM is also delivering GHG reduction recommendations to the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection, which is developing statewide climate stabilization policy.

Climate action plans
Climate action planning is a unique opportunity to bring together atmospheric scientists, urban and environmental planners, designers, and economists to provide local governments with comprehensive plans to achieve their GHG reduction targets. These plans are aimed at identifying the most cost-effective GHG reduction strategies and enabling their phased implementation. CAPs include public outreach and coordination with city or county advisory committees. EDAW AECOM is currently working on or contracted for eleven climate action plans for California cities and counties. The plans will include measures that incentivize green building and energy-efficiency retrofits, encourage land use planning policies that limit VMT, and provide opportunities for renewable energy generation. The City of Albany's CAP was recently completed by a team led by Jeff Henderson, Culley Thomas, Curtis Alling, Heather Phillips, Alexander Quinn, Claire Bonham-Carter, and Honey Walters, and has been made publicly available here.

Spreading the word
Part of this work is to increase public awareness of climate change. EDAW AECOM principals and specialists are doing this by participating in the most authoritative workshops. Curtis Alling, Gary Jakobs, Sydney Coatsworth, John Bridges, and Honey Walters have participated in the 2008 State Attorney General/Local Government Commission workshop series on Climate Change and CEQA and the 2009 Senator Darrell Steinberg/Office of Planning and Research/Local Government Commission workshop series on Implementing SB 375 Sustainable Community Strategies. They have also participated in numerous university extension classes and conference presentations to help advance the dialogue and thought-development process toward climate solutions.

Best practices in the UK
The United Kingdom has more stringent GHG reduction legislation in place than the US. By 2050, the UK mandates an 80% emission reduction compared to 1990 levels. To help achieve this goal, English Partnerships, the UK's national development agency, launched the Carbon Challenge, which is accelerating the house-building industry's response to climate change. The Carbon Challenge has mandated that homes achieve the sixth and most difficult level of the UK's Code for Sustainable Homes. From an energy perspective, level six requires a home to be net zero carbon—which means that the energy taken from the grid must be less than or equal to that returned through renewable technologies. The Government intends that all new homes will be net zero carbon by 2016.

Key to creating zero carbon communities is establishing renewable energy sources in such a way that they can efficiently and cost-effectively deliver power to communities. Celeste Morgan, EDAW AECOM sustainability consultant, and her colleagues have been working out of London to determine the feasibility of implementing localized renewable energy in various English boroughs.

Building the case in Dover
EDAW AECOM's work for the district of Dover proved to be an exemplar of this type of project. Dover District Council appointed EDAW AECOM along with fellow AECOM consultants Faber Maunsell to produce an evidence base for sustainable construction and renewable energy policies. By examining the opportunities and constraints for improving the efficiency of existing building stock and by understanding the relationship with performance requirements for new buildings, including development proposed for strategic sites, the study took a holistic approach to advancing the Council's sustainability priorities.

Published in April 2009, the study addressed four objectives: renewable and low-carbon energy generation; selecting land for development; local requirements for decentralized energy to supply new development; and local requirements for sustainable buildings. To meet these objectives, the Council sought to establish locally applicable targets; establish advanced targets for strategic sites; develop an understanding of local renewable resources and the local delivery context; and identify opportunities to include district heating and combined heat and power into development proposals. The Council and consultants aimed to develop an approach that was sufficiently flexible given the changing nature of climate change understanding and policy while ensuring that this approach was readily implementable.

The study took into account Dover's particular vulnerability to water scarcity, a challenge that will be intensified by climate change. Data was gathered from a wide range of sources, and where possible, GIS was used to map the data. Outputs of the study included an appreciation of the physical constraints facing Dover District in terms of water availability and built stock, to justify standards that are set at and above the national level; targets that are meaningful, locally responsive and supported by potential developers; amended and new policies recommended for inclusion in the Dover Core Strategy; and advice as to how sustainable construction and renewable energy policies influence spatial planning, built form and urban design.

The study was holistic first and foremost by assessing both existing stock as well as planned new stock. Many studies look at either the existing stock or standards for new build in isolation. This study combined the two to provide an appreciation of how a challenging reduction of total carbon emissions from energy use could be enabled and to understand the various effects of different strategies, such as the carbon reduction achieved through implementation of better insulation compared with inclusion of various renewable. Public consultation on Dover's Core Strategy ended in March 2009, and it is due to be submitted to the Secretary of State in August. The Core Strategy and accompanying evidence library, including the evidence base for Sustainable Construction and Renewable Energy, will be tested at Examination in Public in November 2009 with adoption anticipated in May 2010.

Cascading consequences
Meanwhile, Celeste Morgan and London colleagues explored the risks posed by climate change using a methodology developed by AECOM Melbourne called "Cascading Consequences." This traces the consequences of climate change beyond the direct impacts to examine how rising temperatures will effect public health, socioeconomic factors, and the need for certain social infrastructure. Forty planners attended a workshop in London for a test case of Cascading Consequences hosted by the Royal Town Planning Institute (RTPI) and EDAW AECOM. The model is anticipated to be used with frequency as a consultation tool in the UK for plotting the needs of communities to prepare for climate change and its far-reaching, often unforeseen consequences.

See next month's issue of NOW for the second part of "Climate Change: Policy and Practice," which will examine planning and design techniques that directly influence the natural and built environment to mitigate and adapt to climate change.

Jake Herson